English Book

Features of informal English

Silent pauses (dash -)
Voice filled pauses
Use of repetition
False starts marker

Features of spoken English

1. Tag question
2. Ellipsis
3. Coordination and subordination
4. Finite clauses

Difference between <AmE> and <BrE>

1.Article usage

Our daughter is at the university. (AmE)
Our daughter is at university. ( BrE)

2. Got/ gotten

He has got/gotten the movie ticket. (AmE)
He has got the movie ticket.

3. Simple past & present perfect

She ate too much.(AmE)
She’s eaten too much.(BrE)

4. Subjunctive

The press suggested that Hari be dropped from the team.(AmE)
The press suggested that Hari should be dropped from the team.(BrE)

5. Different from /than/to

This place is different than anything I’ve seen before.

6. From….through or From ….to

The tour lasted from July trough August .(AmE)
The tour lasted from July to August. (BrE)

46. Formal and informal

There are many friends to whom one would hesitate to entrust one’s own children . (Formal)
There’s lots of friends who you would hesitate to entrust your own children. (Informal)

49.Formal vs less formal

Aid – help
Commence – begin
Conceal – hide
Continue – keep on
Conclude – end

Formal vs informal

Delete – cross off
Encounter – come across
Enter – go into
Investigate – look into
Surrender – give in
Renovate – do up

50. Impersonal style

1.Passive sentences
2.Sentences beginning with introductory It
3.sentences beginning with Abstract noun
– wealth didn’t bring them happiness.

Shut the door , will you (familiar )

Would you please shut the door ? (Rather polite)
I wonder if you would mind shutting the door .( more polite)

Someone may have made a mistake. (Tentative)

Someone might just have made a mistake. ( more tentative )

Features of literature language

Alliteration ,Assonance ,Rhyme ,Rhythm ,Simile ,Metaphor

Noun

1.Group noun
A set of tools , a herd of cattle , a crowd of people , a flock of sheep , a gang of thieves ,a constellation of star
2.Part & whole noun

Part –whole , half , a quarter
Unit noun –piece ,slice :- A piece of bread / paper / land

3. Mass noun
4.Species noun
5.Concrete & abstract noun

Use of Definite Article

Unique use of the

The earth revolves around the sun.
2.Back-pointing use of the
He has son and two daughters , but the son is already grown up.
3.Forward-pointing use of the
The wine of France is the best in the world.
4.Conventional use of the
what’s on T.V. tonight.

Generic the

A) Adjectives are used with generic the

To denote a class of people ( the poor , the young)
To denote an abstract quality
With nationality adjective ending in sibilant – ch, ese , sh
With nationality or ethnic noun

Generic use of pronouns

one :-One never knows what may happen.
You :-You never know what may happen.
They :-They say it’s going to rain tomorrow

Pointer words

1.Pointer words can be situational
Would you like to sit on this chair.
2.Pointer words can be back pointing
This was what he had said.
3.Pointer words can be forward pointing
This is what he wrote.

The ‘have’ relation

1. Noun2 of noun 1 ( the roof of house , the courage of people ,the gravity of earth)
2. Noun1 of noun 2 ( people of courage, the father of son , a door of colour)
3. Noun1 with noun 2 ( a house with roof , a man with helmet , a door with lock , a lady with lamp)

The use of genitive (apostrophe)

The ‘have’ relation :- The earth’s gravity ; the sun’s light
The subject verb relation :- The train’s departure.
The verb object relation:- A city’s destruction
The subject complement relation :-The country’s beauty

(Inclusive & exclusive We)

Let’s go back to bar now, shall we? (Inclusive we)
We’ve enjoyed meeting you. ( exclusive we)

110 restrictive and non restrictive meaning

Non restrictive restrictive ( narrow down the meaning)

The children the children who live next door
A king a king of Denmark

Present tense : –

Present state ,Present event ,Present habit , Temporary present, Temporary habit

Future trends

1.Will/ shall (neutral)

The letter will arrive tomorrow
I’ll see you again.

2. Be going to (arising from present time)

Prices are going to rise.
It’s going to rain.

3. Progressive aspect ( plan or arrangement)

We are inviting several people to a party.
What are you doing to lunch?

4. Simple present tense (fact)

The match starts at 2:00 p.m.
Tomorrow is Monday.

5.Will/shall +progressive aspect (temporary)

We will be taking part in conference on Jan 21.

Verbs

1. Activities (walk, read , work ,drink)
2. Processes (change, grow, improve)
3. Verbs denoting momentary events ( knock , jump , nod , kick)

Place

Adverb – i left it there.
Prepositional phrase :- I left it two miles away.
Noun phrase +away :- I left it two miles away.
Adverbial clause :- I left it where i found it.

Manner , means & measurement

I wrote it hurriedly. (Manner)
I wrote it by hand. (Means)
I wrote it with a red ball point pen

Role ,standard & point of view

Ram is clever.
Ram is clever at swimming ( role)
Ram is a good swimmer for a youngster. (Standard)
He is good swimmer in a technical sense. ( point of view)

Open and hypothetical condition

I’ll lend Ram the money because he needs it.
I’ll lend Ram the money if he needs it. ( open condition)
I would lend Ram the money if he needed it. ( hypothetical condition)

Emotive emphasis in speech

1.Interjection (oh, ah,aha,yipee ,ouch,ow, ooh, ugh)

Oh , what a beautiful present.
Wow, what a fantastic goal.

2.Exclamations

Repetition

This house is far, far too expensive.
I think that the lectures are very very boring.

Stress on the operator

That will be nice
What are you doing ?

301 Intensifying adverbs

Well, that’s very nice indeed.
We are utterly powerless.

304 Exclamatory and rhetorical questions

Hasn’t she grown.( she’s grown very very much)
Am i hungry (I’m very hungry)

Agreement and disagreement

1.Agreement
A : his speech was so boring.
B: Yes ( definitely , exactly , absolutely)
A: His speech was not boring.
B : ( definitely not / i agree/ it certainly not )

2.Tactful disagreement
A: English is difficultly language to learn.
B : true, but grammar is quite easy.
B : yes , but it’s not so difficult as Russian.
3.Partial or qualified agreement
I realize that every form of taxation has its critics but surely this is the most unfair and unpopular tax that was ever invented.
4. Strengthened agreement
A: the government will have to take steps to limit the no of cars on the road.
B: yes , in fact i believe public opinion is now in favour of banning cars in the central areas of major cities.

274 Fact , hypothesis

I’m glad that the minister has agreed ( fact)
I wish that the minister had agreed. ( hypothesis)
Did you know that the minister had agreed?

279 neutrality

it’s best if Sarah is patient.
I want all of us to agree.

Emotions

1.Hope

I hope to see you soon.
I hope that he will arrive on time.
I am hoping that they get that letter tomorrow.

2. Approval

I love your dress.
I like the new boss.

3.Disapproval

I don’t like the way she dresses .
I don’t think that you should have told the children.

4. Disappointment or Regret

I’m very sorry to hear that you have to leave.
I am disappointed that the match has been cancelled.
it’s surprising that so many people come to these meetings.

5. Concern , worry

I am worried that our money will be unused unnecessarily.
I am concerned ( worried ) about what will happen to the union

6.Surprise

- How strange ! That you both went to the Same school.

Volition (4 types)

1.Willingness ( will / shall )

Will you lend me those scissors.
The porter will help if you ask him.

2.Wish

I want to read this newspaper report.
Do u want me to sign this letter.

3.Intention

That remark was intended to hurt her
Are u going to catch the train.

4.Insistence

He insists on doing everything himself

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